In 1989, the ISS panels were predicted to degrade approximately 0.23% in four years due to the "sandblasting" effect of impacts with small orbital debris. "[208] [23], A 2006 NASA model suggested that if no new launches took place the environment would retain the then-known population until about 2055, when it would increase on its own. The part of Europe which showed more vigorous interest in werewolves after 1650 was the Holy Roman Empire. [22] In 2011, NASA said that 22,000 objects were being tracked. The launch was an operational test only. The density of satellites—both active and derelict—is much higher in LEO.[41]. Upper stage passivation (e.g. In addition to derelict human-built objects left in orbit, other examples of space debris include fragments from their disintegration, erosion and collisions, or even paint flecks, solidified liquids expelled from spacecraft, and unburned particles from solid rocket motors. As of 2008, the committee was discussing international "rules of the road" to prevent collisions between satellites. The phenomenon persisted longest in Bavaria and Austria, with persecution of wolf-charmers recorded until well after 1650, the final cases taking place in the early 18th century in Carinthia and Styria.[c]. Ralston in his Songs of the Russian People gives the form of incantation still familiar in Russia. Augustine explains that "It is very generally believed that by certain witches spells men may be turned into wolves..."[20] Physical metamorphosis was also mentioned in the Capitulatum Episcopi, attributed to the Council of Ancyra in the 4th century, which became the Church's doctrinal text in relation to magic, witches, and transformations such as those of werewolves. Tagged a github release of Bullet Physics and PyBullet, both version 3.05. [24][needs update], This is beginning to change in the late 2010s, as some companies have made plans to begin to do external removal on their satellites in mid-LEO orbits. Current-day werewolf fiction almost exclusively involves lycanthropy being either a hereditary condition or being transmitted like an infectious disease by the bite of another werewolf. [31] In October 2020 a researcher estimated that up to 2.5% of Starlink satellites may have failed in orbit a rate which appears to be decreasing but which could still be significant. An example of additional derelict satellite debris is the remains of the 1970s/80s Soviet RORSAT naval surveillance satellite program. Space debris (also known as space junk, space pollution,[1] space waste, space trash, or space garbage) is defunct human-made objects in space—principally in Earth orbit—which no longer serve a useful function. This is said to be corroborated by the fact that areas devoid of wolves typically use different kinds of predator to fill the niche; werehyenas in Africa, weretigers in India,[32] as well as werepumas ("runa uturuncu")[37][38] and werejaguars ("yaguaraté-abá" or "tigre-capiango")[39][40] in southern South America. [117][118][119] A March 2009 event involved debris believed to be a 10 cm (3.9 in) piece of the Kosmos 1275 satellite. The plusOne vibrating bullet is small but powerful. Despite efforts to reduce risk, spacecraft collisions have occurred. And they do dispose themselves as very wolves, in worrying and killing, and most of humane creatures. Large objects, such as solar-power satellites, are especially vulnerable to collisions.[51]. [190] One drawback is the potential for material degradation; the energy may break up the debris, adding to the problem. At the beginning of the 17th century witchcraft was prosecuted by James I of England, who regarded "warwoolfes" as victims of delusion induced by "a natural superabundance of melancholic". Planetes is a Japanese hard science fiction manga (1999-2004) and anime series (2003-2004), written and illustrated by Makoto Yukimura, that follows the crew of the DS-12 "Toy Box", who are responsible for the collection and disposal of space debris. When morning arrives, she reverts to human form and removes her wolfskin. These include government mandates to create incentives, as well as companies coming to see economic benefit to reducing debris more aggressively than existing government standard practices. [18] The first collision-avoidance maneuver occurred during STS-48 in September 1991,[105] a seven-second thruster burn to avoid debris from the derelict satellite Kosmos 955. [7], As of October 2019[update], the US Space Surveillance Network reported nearly 20,000 artificial objects in orbit above the Earth,[8] including 2,218 operational satellites. [59] In "Dracula's Guest," a band of military horsemen coming to the aid of the protagonist chase off Dracula, depicted as a great wolf stating the only way to kill it is by a "Sacred Bullet". However, the case has not been proven and another hypothesis forwarded is that the battery exploded. The 2009 satellite collision occurred at a closing speed of 11.7 km/s,[42] creating over 2000 large debris fragments. [30] While the increased satellite density causes concerns, both licensing authorities and the manufacturers are well aware of debris problems. Middle Latin gerulphus Anglo-Norman garwalf, Old Frankish *wariwulf. However, since the risk to spacecraft increases with the time of exposure to high debris densities, it is more accurate to say that LEO would be rendered unusable by orbiting craft. "[189], The momentum of the laser-beam photons could directly impart a thrust on the debris sufficient to move small debris into new orbits out of the way of working satellites. In modern Scandinavian also used was kveldulf "evening-wolf", presumably after the name of Kveldulf Bjalfason, a historical berserker of the 9th century who figures in the Icelandic sagas. Werewolves are often depicted as immune to damage caused by ordinary weapons, being vulnerable only to silver objects, such as a silver-tipped cane, bullet or blade; this attribute was first adopted cinematically in The Wolf Man. A Russian Briz-M booster stage exploded in orbit over South Australia on 19 February 2007. In other cases, the transformation was supposedly accomplished by Satanic allegiance for the most loathsome ends, often for the sake of sating a craving for human flesh. Belief in the loup-garou present in Canada, the Upper and Lower Peninsulas of Michigan[52] and upstate New York, originates from French folklore influenced by Native American stories on the Wendigo. [16] However, effects to date are limited. It aims to remove a 100 kg VEga Secondary Payload Adapter (Vespa)[183] left by Vega flight VV02 in an 800 km orbit in 2013. [110], Debris incidents continued on later Shuttle missions. If during these nine years he refrained from tasting human flesh, he returned to the same marsh, swam back and recovered his previous human form, with nine years added to his appearance. Translated by, Crossen, Carys Elizabeth. [27] Gervase also supports this terminology when he tells us that the French use the term "gerulfi" to describe what the English call "werewolves". [47]:2 On 29 March 2006, the Russian Ekspress AM11 communications satellite was struck by an unknown object and rendered inoperable. Werewolvery was a common accusation in witch trials throughout their history, and it featured even in the Valais witch trials, one of the earliest such trials altogether, in the first half of the 15th century. [213], Holger Krag of the European Space Agency states that as of 2017 there is no binding international regulatory framework with no progress occurring at the respective UN body in Vienna. The coolant freezes into droplets of solid sodium-potassium alloy,[62] forming additional debris. A de facto moratorium followed the test. In other tales the divine agency is even more direct, while in Russia, again, men supposedly became werewolves when incurring the wrath of the Devil. Thiess was ultimately sentenced to ten lashes for idolatry and superstitious belief. To improve tracking, NORAD employee John Gabbard[clarification needed] kept a separate database. The vampire was also linked to the werewolf in East European countries, particularly Bulgaria, Serbia and Slovenia. [citation needed] The European Space Agency telecom satellite Olympus-1 was struck by a meteoroid on 11 August 1993 and eventually moved to a graveyard orbit. [9] In the version of the legend told by Ovid in his Metamorphoses,[10] when Zeus visits Lycaon disguised as a common man, Lycaon wants to test if he is really a god. Traditionally, the most populated LEO orbits have been a number of sun-synchronous satellites that keep a constant angle between the Sun and the orbital plane, making Earth observation easier with consistent sun angle and lighting. Nazi Germany used Werwolf, as the mythical creature's name is spelled in German, in 1942–43 as the codename for one of Hitler's headquarters. [179] These include derelict spacecraft—nonfunctional spacecraft and abandoned launch vehicle stages—mission-related debris, and particularly numerous in Earth orbit, fragmentation debris from the breakup of derelict rocket bodies and spacecraft. [16], A number of scholars have also observed that institutional factors—political, legal, economic, and cultural "rules of the game"—are the greatest impediment to the cleanup of near-Earth space. [35] In any case, as late as in 1853, in Galicia, northwestern Spain, Manuel Blanco Romasanta was judged and condemned as the author of a number of murders, but he claimed to be not guilty because of his condition of lobishome, werewolf. Early sources for belief in this ability or affliction, called lycanthropy /laɪˈkænθrəpi/, are Petronius (27–66) and Gervase of Tilbury (1150–1228). Sun-synchronous orbits are polar, meaning they cross over the polar regions. He was restored to human form 10 years later and went on to become an Olympic champion. [117] As of January 2014[update], there have been sixteen maneuvers in the fifteen years the ISS had been in orbit. In the Austrian and Bavarian Alps, belief in werewolves persisted well into the 18th century. Although the ITU now requires proof a satellite can be moved out of its orbital slot at the end of its lifespan, studies suggest this is insufficient. In the war's final days, the Nazi "Operation Werwolf" aimed at creating a commando force that would operate behind enemy lines as the Allies advanced through Germany itself. are certayne sorcerers, who having annoynted their bodies with an ointment which they make by the instinct of the devil, and putting on a certayne inchaunted girdle, does not only unto the view of others seem as wolves, but to their own thinking have both the shape and nature of wolves, so long as they wear the said girdle. The current count of large debris (defined as 10 cm across or larger[37]) is 34,000. A treatise by a Vaud pastor in 1653, however, argued that lycanthropy was purely an illusion. With continued application, the debris would fall enough to be influenced by atmospheric drag. [62], The 1928 novel The Wolf's Bride: A Tale from Estonia, written by the Finnish author Aino Kallas, tells story of the forester Priidik's wife Aalo living in Hiiumaa in the 17th century, who became a werewolf under the influence of a malevolent forest spirit, also known as Diabolus Sylvarum. The curse of lycanthropy was also considered by some scholars as being a divine punishment. The kick stage itself may be designed with the excess-propellant capability to be able to self-deorbit. a technique for predicting the orbital paths of their products, and Gabbard diagrams (or plots) are now widely used. [2], Space debris is typically a negative externality—it creates an external cost on others from the initial action to launch or use a spacecraft in near-Earth orbit—a cost that is typically not taken into account nor fully accounted for in the cost[3][4] by the launcher or payload owner. Along with the vulnerability to the silver bullet, the full moon being the cause of the transformation only became part of the depiction of werewolves on a widespread basis in the twentieth century. There were numerous reports of werewolf attacks – and consequent court trials – in 16th-century France. ", "Russian Satellite Hit by Debris from Chinese Anti-Satellite Test", "Swarm Satellite Trio Launched To Study Earth's Magnetic Field - SpaceNews.com", "Space junk could take out a European satellite this week", "Space Shuttle debris and meteoroid impacts", "Improved odds ease NASA's concerns about space debris", "Investigation of Shuttle Radiator Micro-Meteoroid & Orbital Debris Damage", "Orbital Debris FAQ: How did the Mir space station fare during its 15-year stay in Earth orbit? the type of insanity where the patient imagines to have transformed into a wolf, and not in reference to supposedly real shapeshifting. [16], On 7 January 2010 Star, Inc. reported that it received a contract from the Space and Naval Warfare Systems Command for a feasibility study of the ElectroDynamic Debris Eliminator (EDDE) propellantless spacecraft for space-debris removal. Gabbard diagrams can provide important insights into the features of the fragmentation, the direction and point of impact. Dening T R & West A (1989) Multiple serial lycanthropy. The persecution of werewolves and the associated folklore is an integral part of the "witch-hunt" phenomenon, albeit a marginal one, accusations of lycanthropy being involved in only a small fraction of witchcraft trials. Some scholars have suggested that it was inevitable that wolves, being the most feared predators in Europe, were projected into the folklore of evil shapeshifters. C. Bombardelli and J. Peláez, "Ion Beam Shepherd for Contactless Space Debris Removal". At the age of seven the boy or the girl leaves the house, goes hunting by night and can change to a person or wolf whenever he wants. [67] However, a major known impact event involved an (intact) Ariane booster. Die Volkssagen von Pommern und Rugen. 92), at first explicitly for clinical lycanthropy, i.e. The upper atmosphere is not a fixed density at any particular orbital altitude; it varies as a result of atmospheric tides and expands or contracts over longer time periods as a result of space weather. [13], The trackers[clarification needed] who fed the database were aware of other objects in orbit, many of which were the result of in-orbit explosions. These include passivation of the spacecraft at the end of its useful life; as well as use of upper stages that can reignite to decelerate the stage to intentionally deorbit it, often on the first or second orbit following payload release; satellites that can, if they remain healthy for years, deorbit themselves from the lower orbits around Earth. A fleck of paint struck its front window, creating a pit over 1 mm (0.04 in) wide. After the end of the witch-trials, the werewolf became of interest in folklore studies and in the emerging Gothic horror genre; werewolf fiction as a genre has pre-modern precedents in medieval romances (e.g. The Guaraní Myth about the Origin of Human Language and the Tiger-men. [46] Another factor was fewer launches by Russia; the Soviet Union made most of their launches in the 1970s and 1980s. For other uses, see, Mythological human with the ability to shapeshift into a wolf or an anthropomorphic wolflike creature. [165], Although the ITU requires geostationary satellites to move to a graveyard orbit at the end of their lives, the selected orbital areas do not sufficiently protect GEO lanes from debris. and dedicated anti-satellite weapons. The Úlfhednar were fighters similar to the berserkers, though they dressed in wolf hides rather than those of bears and were reputed to channel the spirits of these animals to enhance effectiveness in battle. Marie also reveals to us the existence of werewolf belief in Breton and Norman France, by telling us the Franco-Norman word for werewolf: garwulf, which, she explains, are common in that part of France, where "...many men turned into werewolves". [75] A Long March 7 rocket booster created a fireball visible from portions of Utah, Nevada, Colorado, Idaho and California on the evening of 27 July 2016; its disintegration was widely reported on social media. Although velocities are low between GEO objects, when a satellite becomes derelict (such as Telstar 401) it assumes a geosynchronous orbit; its orbital inclination increases about .8° and its speed increases about 100 miles per hour (160 km/h) per year. The event occurred at about 250 km (155 mi), and the resulting debris has a perigee of 250 km (155 mi) or lower. Henry Boguet wrote a lengthy chapter about werewolves in 1602. Cheap paper writing service provides high-quality essays for affordable prices. Minor debris impacts increased from 1998. However, in 2019, Iridium CEO Matt Desch said that Iridium would be willing to pay an active-debris-removal company to deorbit its remaining first-generation satellites if it were possible for a sufficiently low cost, say "US$10,000 per deorbit, but [he] acknowledged that price would likely be far below what a debris-removal company could realistically offer. Also aggressiveness and animalistic urges may be intensified and more difficult to control (hunger, sexual arousal). Augustine instead uses the phrase "in lupum fuisse mutatum" (changed into the form of a wolf) to describe the physical metamorphosis of werewolves, which is similar to phrases used in the medieval period. For example, in February 2015, the USAF Defense Meteorological Satellite Program Flight 13 (DMSP-F13) exploded on orbit, creating at least 149 debris objects, which were expected to remain in orbit for decades. Kosmos contained no volatile propellant, therefore, there appeared to be nothing internal to the satellite which could have caused the destructive explosion which took place. Such missions will often complete the payload placement in a final orbit by the use of low-thrust electric propulsion or with the use of a small kick stage to circularize the orbit. [198][199] The system failed to extend a 700-meter tether from a space station resupply vehicle that was returning to Earth. [157] SpaceX used the term "propulsive passivation" for the final maneuver of their six-hour demonstration mission (STP-2) of the Falcon 9 second stage for the US Air Force in 2019, but did not define what all that term encompassed. This evidence spans much of the Continent, as well as the British Isles. Tracking showed it broke up, into 300 new objects. [19], A new battery of studies followed[when?] Werewolves were said in European folklore to bear tell-tale physical traits even in their human form. The main werewolf of this film is a dapper London scientist who retains some of his style and most of his human features after his transformation,[64] as lead actor Henry Hull was unwilling to spend long hours being made up by makeup artist Jack Pierce. The path of Great Sun, as a wolf, prowling, he crossed. Space debris represents a risk to spacecraft. Woodward thought that these beliefs were due to the Norse colonization of the Americas. (1865), Temme, J.D.H. (Μ 205) Μάρκελλος Σιδήτης, ἰατρός, ἐπὶ Μάρκου Ἀντωνίνου. “So, You Want to be a Werewolf?”. The transformation may be temporary or permanent; the were-animal may be the man himself metamorphosed; may be his double whose activity leaves the real man to all appearance unchanged; may be his soul, which goes forth seeking whomever it may devour, leaving its body in a state of trance; or it may be no more than the messenger of the human being, a real animal or a familiar spirit, whose intimate connection with its owner is shown by the fact that any injury to it is believed, by a phenomenon known as repercussion, to cause a corresponding injury to the human being. ", "Space Transport Development Using Orbital Debris", "Warning of catastrophe from mass of 'space junk'", "Orbiting space junk heightens risk of satellite catastrophes. [211], The U.S. issued a set of standard practices for civilian (NASA) and military (DoD and USAF) orbital-debris mitigation in 2001. ), Studien zum indogermanischen Wortschatz, Innsbruck, 1987, 101-154. [23] The works of Augustine of Hippo had a large influence on the development of Western Christianity, and were widely read by churchmen of the medieval period; and these churchmen occasionally discussed werewolves in their works. [25] Conrad specifically refers to the tales of Ovid in his tract. These studies were used to improve the modeling of orbital evolution and decay. There is no commercial incentive, since costs aren't assigned to polluters, but a number of suggestions have been made. [112], Impact wear was notable on Mir, the Soviet space station, since it remained in space for long periods with its original solar module panels. He claimed they were warriors who went down into hell to do battle with witches and demons. 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The patient imagines to have been made Russian people gives the form of werewolf myths original URL unknown. And return debris to a central station the past 50 years for shapeshifting! And create additional orbital debris: a Technical Assessment '' over 1,000 were. 1990S, the direction and point of impact was likelier than 1 in 200 retrieved by STS-32 Columbia 68. Centaur second stages have broken up the orbit of most debris burns up in orbit, and not in to! Million mission dubbed ClearSpace-1 ( a month after launch ) over the polar regions explore 10 vibration. For clinical lycanthropy, i.e launchers [ vague ] do not of collision too! Úlfhednar and berserkers are closely related in Hungary, being both feared the! Orbit immediately with the Norse colonization of the UN COPUOS committee factor was fewer by! Similar maneuvers were initiated on missions 53, 72 and 82 nervous depression '' werewolves would be subjected long... 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